Structures, systems and methods for harvesting energy from electromagnetic radiation

ABSTRACT

Methods, devices and systems for harvesting energy from electromagnetic radiation are provided including harvesting energy from electromagnetic radiation. In one embodiment, a device includes a substrate and one or more resonance elements disposed in or on the substrate. The resonance elements are configured to have a resonant frequency, for example, in at least one of the infrared, near-infrared and visible light spectra. A layer of conductive material may be disposed over a portion of the substrate to form a ground plane. An optical resonance gap or stand-off layer may be formed between the resonance elements and the ground plane. The optical resonance gap extends a distance between the resonance elements and the layer of conductive material approximately one-quarter wavelength of a wavelength of the at least one resonance element&#39;s resonant frequency. At least one energy transfer element may be associated with the at least one resonance element.

GOVERNMENT RIGHTS

This invention was made with government support under Contract No.DE-AC07-05-1D14517 awarded by the United States Department of Energy.The government has certain rights in the invention.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application is related to copending U.S. patent application Ser.No. 11/939,358 filed Nov. 13, 2007, now U.S. Pat. No. 7,792,644, issuedSep. 7, 2010, entitled METHODS, COMPUTER READABLE MEDIA, AND GRAPHICALUSER INTERFACES FOR ANALYSIS OF FREQUENCY SELECTIVE SURFACES and U.S.Provisional Patent Application Ser. No. 60/987,630 filed Nov. 13, 2007,entitled ANTENNA DEVICES COMPRISING FLEXIBLE SUBSTRATES, RELATEDSTRUCTURES, AND METHODS OF MAKING AND USING THE SAME, the disclosures ofwhich are incorporated by reference herein in their entireties.

TECHNICAL FIELD

Embodiments of the present invention relate generally to structures andmethods for harvesting energy from electromagnetic radiation and, morespecifically, for nanostructures and related methods and systems forharvesting energy from, for example, the infrared, near-infrared andvisible spectrums and capturing millimeter and Terahertz energy.

BACKGROUND

Conventionally, energy harvesting techniques and systems are focused onrenewable energy such as solar energy, wind energy, and wave actionenergy. Solar energy is conventionally harvested by arrays of solarcells, such as photovoltaic cells, that convert radiant energy to DCpower. Such energy collection is limited in low-light conditions such asat night or even during cloudy or overcast conditions. Conventionalsolar technologies are also limited with respect to the locations andorientations of installment. For example, conventional photovoltaiccells must be installed such that the light of the sun strikes them atspecific angles such that they are receiving relatively direct incidentradiation.

Additionally, current photovoltaic cells are relatively large and arelimited in where they may be installed. As such, while providing someutility in harvesting energy from the electromagnetic radiation providedby the sun, current solar technologies are not yet developed to takefull advantage of the potential electromagnetic energy available.Further, the apparatuses and systems used in capturing and convertingsolar energy are not particularly amenable to installation in numerouslocations or situations.

Moreover, photovoltaic cells are conventionally limited to collection ofenergy in a very narrow band of light (e.g., approximately 0.8micrometer to 0.9 micrometer (μm) wavelengths). The spectrum ofpotentially available electromagnetic energy is much greater than thenarrow band in which conventional photovoltaic cells operate. Forexample, electromagnetic energy provided by the sun falls within thewavelength spectrum of approximately 0.1 μm to approximately 6 μm.Additionally, energy absorbed by the earth and reradiated (e.g., atnight) falls within the wavelength spectrum of approximately 3 μm toapproximately 70 μm. Current energy harvesting technologies fail to takeadvantage of such available energy.

Turning to another technology, frequency selective surfaces (FSSs) areused in a wide variety of applications including radomes, dichoricsurfaces, circuit analog absorbers, and meanderline polarizers. An FSSis a two-dimensional periodic array of electromagnetic antenna elements.Such antenna elements may be in the form of, for example, conductivedipoles, loop patches, slots or other antenna elements. An FSS structuregenerally includes a metallic grid of antenna elements deposited on adielectric substrate. Each of the antenna elements within the griddefines a receiving unit cell.

An electromagnetic wave incident on the FSS structure will pass through,be reflected by, or be absorbed by the FSS structure. This behavior ofthe FSS structure generally depends on the electromagneticcharacteristics of the antenna elements, which can act as smallresonance elements. As a result, the FSS structure can be configured toperform as low-pass, high-pass, or dichoric filters. Thus, the antennaelements may be designed with different geometries and differentmaterials to generate different spectral responses.

Conventionally, FSS structures have been successfully designed andimplemented for use in radio frequency (RF) and microwave frequencyapplications. As previously discussed, there is a large amount ofrenewable electromagnetic radiation available that has been largelyuntapped as an energy source using currently available techniques. Forinstance, radiation in the ultraviolet (UV), visible, and infrared (IR)spectra are energy sources that show considerable potential. However,the scaling of existing FSSs or other similar structures for use inharvesting such potential energy sources comes at the cost of reducedgain for given frequencies.

Additionally, scaling FSSs or other transmitting or receptive structuresfor use with, for example, the IR or near-IR spectra presents numerouschallenges due to the fact that materials do not behave in the samemanner at the so-called “nano-scale” as they do at scales that enablesuch structures to operate in, for example, the radio frequency (RF)spectra. For example, materials that behave homogenously at scalesassociated with the RF spectra often behave inhomogenously at scalesassociated with the IR or near-IR spectra.

There remains a desire in the art to improve upon existing technologiesand to provide methods, structures and systems associated withharvesting energy including structures, methods and systems that provideaccess to greater bands of the electromagnetic spectrum and, thusgreater access to available, yet-unused energy sources.

BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

In one embodiment of the present invention, an energy harvesting deviceis provided. The energy harvesting device includes a substrate and atleast one resonance element associated with the substrate. The at leastone resonance element is configured to have a resonant frequency betweenapproximately 20 THz and approximately 1,000 THz. A layer of conductivematerial substantially covers a surface of the substrate. An opticalresonance gap extends a distance between the at least one resonanceelement and the layer of conductive material of approximatelyone-quarter wavelength of a wavelength of the at least one resonanceelement's resonant frequency. At least one energy transfer element isassociated with the at least one resonance element.

In accordance with another embodiment of the present invention, anotherenergy harvesting device is provided. The energy harvesting deviceincludes a ground plane, a first substrate disposed on a first side ofthe ground plane and a second substrate disposed on a second, opposingside of the ground plane. At least a first resonance element isassociated with the first substrate and located on the first side of theground plane. The first resonance element is sized and configured tohave a resonant frequency between approximately 20 THz and approximately1,000 THz. At least a second resonance element is associated with thesecond substrate and located on the second, opposing side of the groundplane. The second resonance element is sized and configured to have aresonant frequency different from the resonant frequency of the at leasta first resonance element.

In accordance with yet another embodiment of the present invention, amethod of harvesting energy is provided. The method includes providingat least one resonance element formed of an electrically conductivematerial and having a resonant frequency between approximately 20 THzand approximately 1,000 THz. The at least one resonance element isexposed to electromagnetic radiation having a frequency substantiallythe same as the resonant frequency. At least a first portion of theelectromagnetic radiation is absorbed by the at least one resonanceelement. At least a second portion of the electromagnetic radiation isreflected off of a defined surface. At least a portion of the at least asecond portion of the electromagnetic radiation is absorbed by the atleast one resonance element. Induced AC (alternating current) energy istransferred via an energy transfer element.

In accordance with another embodiment of the present invention, anothermethod of harvesting energy is provided. The method includes providingat least one resonance element formed of an electrically conductivematerial and exposing the at least one resonance element toelectromagnetic radiation radiated from the earth. Resonance is inducedin the at least one resonance element to produce AC energy. The ACinduced energy is transferred from the at least one resonance elementvia at least one energy transfer element.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE SEVERAL VIEWS OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 is a partial plan view of a device including an array of elementsused to harvest energy from electromagnetic radiation in accordance withan embodiment of the present invention;

FIG. 2 is a cross-sectional view of a portion of the device as indicatedby section line 2-2 as shown in FIG. 1;

FIG. 3 is a plan view of another element used to harvest energy fromelectromagnetic radiation in accordance with an embodiment of thepresent invention;

FIG. 4 is an array of elements shown in FIG. 3;

FIG. 5 is a partial plan view of a device used to harvest energy fromelectromagnetic radiation in accordance with an embodiment of thepresent invention;

FIG. 6 is a cross-sectional view of a portion of the device as indicatedby section line 6-6 as shown in FIG. 5;

FIG. 7 is a cross-sectional view of a portion of a device used toharvest energy from electromagnetic radiation in accordance with anotherembodiment of the present invention;

FIG. 8 is a schematic of a system incorporating energy harvestingstructures in accordance with another embodiment of the presentinvention;

FIG. 9 is a cross-sectional view of certain components of a device forconverting energy in accordance with an embodiment of the presentinvention;

FIG. 10 is a perspective view of a device for converting energy inaccordance with an embodiment of the present invention;

FIGS. 11A and 11B are schematic views, including cross-sectional viewsof certain components, of an energy transfer device in accordance withan embodiment of the present invention;

FIG. 12 is a perspective, partial cross-sectional view of an energytransfer device in accordance with an embodiment of the presentinvention;

FIG. 13 is a schematic view of a device according to an embodiment ofthe present invention; and

FIG. 14 is a schematic view, including a cross-sectional view of certaincomponents, of an energy transfer device in accordance with anembodiment of the present invention.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

In the following detailed description, reference is made to theaccompanying drawings which form a part hereof, and in which is shown byway of illustration specific embodiments in which the invention may bepracticed. These embodiments are described in sufficient detail toenable those of ordinary skill in the art to practice the invention. Itshould be understood; however, that the detailed description and thespecific examples, while indicating examples of embodiments of theinvention, are given by way of illustration only and not by way oflimitation. From this disclosure, various substitutions, modifications,additions, rearrangements, or combinations thereof within the scope ofthe present invention may be made and will become apparent to thoseskilled in the art.

Embodiments of the present invention provide methods, structures andsystems for harvesting energy from electromagnetic radiation including,for example, harvesting energy from radiation in the infrared,near-infrared and visible light spectra.

Nano electromagnetic concentrator (NEC) structures may include an arrayor other periodic arrangement of resonant structures (also referred toas antennas, micro-antennas, and nano-antennas). It is noted that NECstructures may include, but are not limited to, FSS structures.Generally, the NEC structures may be formed by a conductive materialformed in a specific pattern on a dielectric substrate to create theresonance elements. These NEC structures may be used for spectralmodification of reflected or transmitted incident radiation. Theresonant properties of these structures are largely dependent on thestructure's layout in terms of shape, dimensions, periodicity, thestructure's material properties, and optical parameters of surroundingmedia. It has been demonstrated that by varying the NEC geometry,material properties, or combinations thereof, it is possible to tune theresonance of an NEC structure to meet specific design requirements.However, as previously noted, attempts to scale NEC structures for usein, for example, the infra-red (IR), near IR and visible light spectrahave posed particular problems because of the inhomogenous behavior ofmaterials at the scales necessary to function at such wavelengths andfrequencies.

Referring to FIG. 1, a partial plan view, or top view, of an energyharvesting device 100 is shown that includes various resonancestructures or elements 102 (sometimes referred to herein asnanoantennas) formed in a substrate 104. In the embodiment describedwith respect to FIG. 1, the resonance elements 102 are shown asexhibiting substantially square loop geometries. However, as will beshown with other embodiments described herein, the resonance elements102 may exhibit other geometries and the example embodiments describedherein are not to be taken as limiting with respect to such potentialgeometries.

With continued reference to FIG. 1, FIG. 2 is a cross-sectional view ofthe device 100 shown in FIG. 1. As seen in FIG. 2, the resonanceelements 102 may be partially disposed within the substrate 104. Inother embodiments, such resonance elements 102 may be substantially onan exterior surface of substrate 104. A ground surface or ground plane106 may be formed, for example, on a surface of the substrate 104 at adesired distance from the resonance elements 102. Cavities 108 may beformed in the substrate 104 between resonance elements 102 and theground plane 106. In one embodiment, the cavities 108 may besubstantially unfilled (or, in other words, filled with air), or theymay be filled with a desired substance, including dielectric material110, that exhibits, for example, one or more desired optical propertiesor characteristics. In one embodiment, the distance S extending betweenthe resonance elements 102 and the ground plane 106 (which distance mayalso be the height of the cavities 108), may be approximately equal toone-quarter (¼) of a wavelength of an associated frequency at which theresonance elements 102 are intended to resonate. This spacing forms whatmay be termed an optical resonance gap or an optical resonance stand-offlayer between the resonance elements 102 and the ground plane 106.

The resonance elements 102 may be formed of an electrically conductivematerial. The conductive material may include, for example, a metal orcombination of metals such as manganese (Mn), gold (Au), silver (Ag),copper (Cu), aluminum (Al), platinum (Pt), nickel (Ni), iron (Fe), lead(Pb), tin (Sn), or any other suitable electrically conductive material.In one embodiment, the conductivity of the material used to form theresonance elements 102 may be from approximately 1.0×10⁶ Ohms⁻¹-cm⁻¹ toapproximately 106.0×10⁶ Ohms⁻¹-cm⁻¹.

Additionally, as noted above, the resonance elements 102 may exhibit avariety of geometries. As non-limiting examples, such geometries mayinclude circular loops, concentric loops, square spirals, circularspirals, slots, and crosses. Moreover, an energy harvesting device 100may include numerous different geometries of resonance elements 102formed on or in the substrate 104.

The substrate 104 of the device 100 may include a dielectric material.As non-limiting examples, the substrate 104 may comprise asemiconductor-based material including silicon, silicon-on-insulator(SOI) or silicon-on-sapphire (SOS) technology, doped and undopedsemiconductor materials, epitaxial layers of silicon supported by a basesemiconductor foundation, and other semiconductor structures. Inaddition, the semiconductor material need not be silicon-based, but maybe based on silicon-germanium, silicon-on-insulator,silicon-on-sapphire, germanium, or gallium arsenide, among others.

As other non-limiting examples, the substrate 104 may comprise aflexible material selected to be compatible with energy transmission ofa desired wavelength, or range of wavelengths, of light. The substrate104 may be formed from a variety of flexible materials such as athermoplastic polymer or a moldable plastic. By way of othernon-limiting examples, the substrate 104 may comprise polyethylene,polypropylene, acrylic, fluoropolymer, polystyrene, polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA), polyethylene terephthalate (MYLAR®),polyimide (e.g., KAPTON®), polyolefin, or any other material suitablefor use as a substrate 104. In additional embodiments, the substrate 104may comprise a binder with nanoparticles distributed therein, such assilicon nanoparticles distributed in a polyethylene binder, or ceramicnanoparticles distributed in an acrylic binder. Any type of substrate104 may be used as long it is compatible with the transmission of adesired wavelength within the spectrum of electromagnetic radiation.

The ground plane 106 may also be formed of an electrically conductivematerial. The conductive material may include, for example, a metal orcombination of metals such as manganese (Mn), gold (Au), silver (Ag),copper (Cu), aluminum (Al), platinum (Pt), nickel (Ni), iron (Fe), lead(Pb), tin (Sn), or any other material suitable for use as anelectrically conductive material. The ground plane 106 may also exhibitsurface properties that make it a good optical reflector, with minimaldiffusion and scattering of the electromagnetic energy. In oneembodiment, the conductivity of the material used to form the resonanceelements 102 may be from approximately 40.0×10⁶ Ohms⁻¹-cm⁻¹ toapproximately 106.0×10⁶ Ohms⁻¹-cm⁻¹. Additionally, the ground plane 106may exhibit a reflectivity of approximately 95% or greater over the fullbandwidth of intended operation of the device 100.

As noted hereinabove, in one embodiment, the cavities 108 may simply befilled with air. The use of air may provide desirable performancecharacteristics of the device 100 with respect to optical refraction andpermittivity at locations extending immediately between the resonanceelements 102 and the ground plane 106. However in other embodiments, adielectric material 110 may be disposed within the cavity 108. Forexample, the cavities 108 may include a material 110 such as siliconnanoparticles dispersed in a polyethylene binder, silicon dioxide(SiO₂), alumina (Al₂O₃), aluminum oxynitride (AlON), or silicon nitride(Si₃N₄). In additional embodiments, material such as polymers, rubbers,silicone rubbers, cellulose materials, ceramics, glass, or crystals maybe disposed in the cavities 108.

In some embodiments, an overcoat or protective layer may be formed onone or more surfaces of the device 100. For example, a protective layer112 (shown by dashed lines in FIG. 2) may comprise a flexible materialsuch as polyethylene, silicon nanoparticles dispersed in a polyethylenebinder, polypropylene, MYLAR® polymer, or KAPTON® polymer. In someembodiments, the protective layer 112 may be configured to protect oneor more components of the device 100 from environmental damage, such ascorrosion caused by moisture or caustic chemicals. The material used toform the protective layer 112 may be based on desired electro-opticproperties so as to enhance transmission, or at least not impedetransmission, of electromagnetic radiation to the resonance elements102, the ground plane 106 and the cavities 108. In this manner, theovercoat may be used to emulate environmental conditions that couldotherwise influence the resonance properties of the resonance elements102.

It is noted that, in some instances, the protective layer 112 mightintroduce some undesirable behavior in the solar region, includingtrapped antenna grating lobes resulting in loss of energy and areduction in omni-directional reception of solar energy or otherelectromagnetic radiation. As such, an anti-reflective coating may beused to compensate for these undesirable features in accordance with oneembodiment of the present invention.

In one embodiment, a coating may be applied as a final “top coat” andmay be sputtered on using, for example, a plasma-enhanced chemical vapordeposition (PECVD) process. The coating may be applied as a thin-filmhaving a tailored refractive index. Materials from which the top coatmay be formed include, for example, silicon nitride, titanium dioxide,and amorphous silicon. The thickness of the protective layer 112 may beselected to produce destructive interference in undesired reflectedenergy and constructive interference in the desired transmitted energy.In some embodiments, protective layer 112 may be manufactured as aseparate layer and subsequently over-laid and adhered to the device 100.

The energy harvesting device 100 may be manufactured using a variety oftechniques including a variety of semiconductor fabrication techniques,nanofabrication techniques and other processes as will be recognized bythose of ordinary skill in the art depending, in part, on the materialsused to form the device 100.

Still referring to FIGS. 1 and 2, one particular embodiment of theinvention may include a substrate 104 formed of polyethylene, with theresonance elements 102 and the ground plane 106 formed of gold. Thecavities 108 may be filled with air or with a material 110 includingsilicon nanoparticles dispersed in a polyethylene binder. It is notedthat the use of polyethylene as a substrate 104 (or other similarmaterial) provides the device 100 with flexibility such that it may bemounted and installed in a variety of locations and adapted to a varietyof uses.

The dimensions of the various components may vary depending, forexample, on the frequency at which the resonance elements 102 aredesired to resonate and the materials used to form the variouscomponents of the device 100. For example, in one embodiment, thethickness H of the substrate 104 may be from 3 μm to approximately 15μm. The width W of the traces or individual elements forming theresonance elements 102 may be from approximately 100 nanometers (nm) toapproximately 400 nm. In one particular example, the width W may be fromapproximately 200 nm to approximately 300 nm. The thickness T of theresonance elements 102 may be from approximately 30 nm to approximately150 nm. The inside length L between traces or individual elements of agiven resonance element 102 may be from approximately 1 μm toapproximately 10 μm. The distance X between individual resonanceelements 102 may be from approximately 100 nm to approximately 400 nm.In one particular example, the distance X between resonance elements 102may be from approximately 200 nm to approximately 300 nm. The thicknessY of the ground plane 106 may be approximately 20 nm to approximately 1μm.

Various geometries and dimensions of components of the device 100 may bedetermined, for example, using appropriate modeling techniques. Forexample, copending U.S. Pat. No. 7,792,644, titled “METHODS, COMPUTERREADABLE MEDIA, AND GRAPHICAL USER INTERFACES FOR ANALYSIS OF FREQUENCYSELECTIVE SURFACES,” describes a method of analyzing structures andcomponents that may be used as an NEC (such as the device 100 of thepresently described embodiments) and determining the response of suchstructures using, in one example, a Periodic Method of Moments analysisand taking into consideration a number of different variables such asanticipated operational frequencies, material properties, and componentdimensions.

During operation of the energy harvesting device 100, the device 100 maybe exposed to electromagnetic radiation such as, for example, that whichis provided by the sun or that which is reradiated by the earth afterhaving absorbed energy from the sun. Some of the radiation will beabsorbed by the resonance elements 102 as incident radiation and asindicated by reference numeral 120. In one embodiment, the resonanceelements 102 are configured to resonate at a frequency that correspondswith the frequency of the radiation to which the energy harvestingdevice 100 is exposed. For example, the resonance elements 102 may beconfigured to resonate at a frequency in one of the infrared,near-infrared, or visible light spectra. In one embodiment, theresonance elements 102 may be configured with a resonant frequency ofbetween approximately 20 Terahertz (THz) and approximately 1,000 THz (orat wavelengths of approximately 0.3 μm to approximately 15.0 μm), whichcorresponds generally to the visible to the mid-infrared spectrum.

As such, an electrical resonance takes place in the resonance elements102 such that electrons on the surface of the resonance elements 102oscillate and produce an electrical current. Radiation that is notimmediately absorbed by the resonance elements 102 may pass through thesubstrate 104 and reflect off of the ground plane 106. Some of thereflected radiation may then be absorbed by the resonance elements 102as indicated by reference numeral 122. Some of the radiation that isreflected, but not immediately absorbed, may resonate within the opticalresonance gap as indicated by reference numeral 124. The opticalresonance gap or stand-off layer helps to increase the efficiency of theenergy captured or absorbed by the resonance elements 102.

As schematically indicated in FIGS. 1 and 2, an energy transfer element130, as shown by dashed lines, may be associated with the resonanceelements 102 to assist in harvesting the energy produced by theresonance elements 102 when exposed to electromagnetic radiation at theappropriate frequency. For example, the energy transfer element 130 mayinclude a capacitor structure coupled with a resonance element 102 so asto develop a charge based on the current produced within the associatedresonance element 102. Such an energy transfer element 130 may, forexample, be disposed adjacent a resonance element 102 such as adjacentor within an associated cavity 108. As noted above, the energy transferelement 130 is shown schematically in FIGS. 1 and 2. Additional detailsregarding potential embodiments utilizing more specific embodiments ofenergy transfer elements are discussed hereinbelow.

In one embodiment, there may be an energy transfer element 130associated with each resonance element 102 and a plurality of energytransfer elements 130 may be coupled together to a common storagedevice, such as a battery, or to processing equipment such as a systemfor converting or conditioning the power provided by the resonanceelements 102 and the plurality of energy transfer elements 130. Inanother embodiment, multiple resonance elements 102 may be electricallycoupled with a common energy transfer element 130. In one suchembodiment, a plurality of resonance elements 102 may have feedpointscoupled to a common energy transfer element 130.

Turning now to FIG. 3, a resonance element 102′ according to anotherembodiment of the present invention is shown. The resonance element 102′may be configured to exhibit a geometry of what may be termed square orangular spirals. Such spirals may include a first portion 140 thatspirals inwardly to a termination point 142 and a second portion 144that is essentially a reversed image (both vertically and horizontally)and spirals inwardly to a termination point 146. The first portion 140and the second portion 144 are cooperatively interleaved with oneanother such that their respective termination points 142 and 146 arepositioned proximate one another. The termination points 142 and 146 mayact as feedpoints for an energy transfer element 130′ such as furtherdescribed hereinbelow.

As shown in FIG. 4, an array of resonance elements 102′ may be used toform an apparatus configured generally similarly to the embodimentpreviously described with respect to FIGS. 1 and 2. For example, whilenot specifically shown in FIGS. 3 and 4, the resonance elements 102′ maybe disposed on or in a substrate material that has a ground planeassociated therewith. Additionally, optical resonance gaps or stand-offlayers may be formed in the substrate material and associated with theresonance elements 102′. Such resonance elements 102′ may be sized andconfigured to resonate at a desired frequency (e.g., at a frequency inthe visible, IR or near-IR spectra or at frequencies or wavelengthsdescribed elsewhere herein). Similarly, optical resonance gaps orstand-off layers may be configured in accordance with an identifiedfrequency of radiation at which the apparatus is intended to be exposed.A density of resonance elements on the array may be from approximatelyfifty billion per square meter to approximately one hundred ten billionper square meter.

Turning now to FIGS. 5 and 6, another embodiment of an apparatus 200 isshown. The apparatus 200 may include one or more resonance elements 102exhibiting a first configuration (e.g., exhibiting a desired geometry,size, material property or combination thereof) and one or moreresonance elements 202 exhibiting a second configuration. For the sakeof convenience and clarity in describing such an embodiment, only one ofeach configuration of resonance elements 102 and 202 is shown.

In the embodiment shown, one resonance element 202 may be nested withinthe other resonance element 102, although in other embodiments theresonance elements 102 and 202 may be positioned laterally adjacent toone another or in other spatial arrangements. In one embodiment, such asshown in FIGS. 5 and 6, each of the resonance elements 102 and 202 mayexhibit similar geometries but different dimensions. In anotherembodiment, while not specifically shown, a first resonance element maybe configured to exhibit a different geometry than that of a secondresonance element. For example, a first resonance element may beconfigured as a loop, while a second resonance element may be configuredas a spiral.

As previously described, a cavity 108 may be associated with theresonance element 102 of the first configuration Likewise, a cavity 208may be associated with the resonance element 202 exhibiting the secondconfiguration. The two resonance elements 102 and 202, along with theirassociated cavities 108 and 208, may be located on the same side of acommon ground plane 206, as shown in FIG. 6. The two different resonantelements 102 and 202 may be spaced different distances from the commonground plane 106 so as to effectively define two different opticalresonant gaps or stand-off layers.

The two resonance elements 102 and 202 are configured to resonate atdifferent frequencies. For example, in one embodiment, one array ofresonance elements may be configured to resonate at a frequencyassociated with visible light, while another array of resonance elementsmay be configured to resonate at frequencies associated with what may bereferred to as “long wavelength IR.” Thus, the two resonance elements102 and 202 may provide the ability to simultaneously harvest energy atmultiple, substantially different frequencies, or to harvest energy atsubstantially different frequencies at different times based onanticipated changing radiation conditions.

Referring briefly to FIG. 7, a cross-sectional view of an apparatus 300in accordance with yet another embodiment of the present invention isshown. The apparatus 300 includes one or more resonance elements 102 ofa first configuration (e.g., exhibiting a desired geometry, size,material property or combination thereof) and one or more resonanceelements 302 exhibiting a second configuration. For the sake ofconvenience and clarity in describing such an embodiment, only one ofeach configuration of resonance elements 102 and 302 is shown.

As previously described, a cavity 108 may be associated with theresonance element 102 of the first configuration Likewise, a cavity 308may be associated with the resonance element 302 exhibiting the secondconfiguration. The first resonance element 102 and associated cavity 108(or the plurality of resonance elements 102 and associated cavities 108)may be associated with a first substrate 304A located on a first side ofa ground plane 306 while the second resonance element 302 and associatedcavity 308 (or plurality thereof) may be associated with anothersubstrate 304B located on an opposing side of the ground plane 306.

The two resonance elements 102 and 302 are configured to resonate atdifferent frequencies. Being on opposite sides of the ground plane 306,the resonance elements 102 and 302 are also oriented for exposure todifferent sources of radiation. For example, the resonance element orelements 102 of the first configuration may be configured and orientedto harvest energy based on incident radiation from the sun. On the otherhand, the resonance element or elements 302 of the second configurationmay be configured and oriented to harvest energy that is reradiated fromthe earth (e.g., at nighttime). Such an apparatus 300 would enablecollection of energy from dual sources at different frequencies andbeing transmitted from different locations.

As will be appreciated by those of ordinary skill in the art, thedifferent embodiments described herein may be combined or modified in avariety of ways. For example, the embodiments described with respect toFIGS. 6 and 7 may be combined such that multiple differentconfigurations of resonance elements 102, 202, 302 may be disposed in oron the associated substrates (e.g., substrates 104, 304A, and 304B).Additionally, when multiple resonance elements are being utilized,different geometries may be intermixed in a device. In other words, asingle device may include a variety of combinations of geometriesincluding those previously described herein.

Referring now to FIG. 8, a block diagram is shown of an illustrativeenergy harvesting system 400 according to an embodiment of the presentinvention. The energy harvesting system 400 includes device 100, andapparatus 200, 300 that capture and concentrate electromagneticradiation at desired resonant frequencies. The system 400 may furtherinclude at least one energy conversion element 402 (that may includeenergy transfer elements 130 or 130′, FIGS. 1-3), which may convert andtransfer the electromagnetic energy captured by the device 100, andapparatus 200, 300 during the harvesting process. The system 400 mayfurther comprise an energy storage device 404 such as, for example, alithium or polymer-form factor battery. In one example, the energystorage device 404 may be trickle-charged by voltage from the energyconversion element 402. The system 400 may further include a powermanagement system 406 for controlling the flow of energy between theenergy conversion element 402 and the energy storage device 404. Theenergy storage device 404 may also be operatively coupled to an externalcomponent or system requiring energy (not shown). In some embodiments,one or more systems 400 may be coupled to provide higher currents orvoltages as desired.

Referring now to FIG. 9, a schematic is shown (showing cross-sections ofcertain components) of an energy conversion system 450 according to oneembodiment of the invention. The energy conversion system 450 includesantenna elements 452 (or resonance elements) parasitically coupled to acapacitive storage element 458. The antenna elements 452 may beconfigured as a dipole planar array.

Capacitive coupling is the transfer of energy within an electricalnetwork by means of the capacitance between circuit nodes. Parasiticcapacitive coupling can be effected by placing two conductors withinclose enough proximity such that radiated E-fields crosstalk. Such asystem is generally analogous to a charge-coupled device (CCD). Thus,the transfer of Terahertz current from the antenna elements 452 does notrequire a direct or “physical” electrical connection (e.g., a wire orconductive trace).

The antenna element 452 has a known resistance, such resistance being afunction of sheet resistance of, for example, a bulk metal of which theantenna element 452 is fabricated. Electromagnetic energy, as shown byarrows in FIG. 9, impinges on the antenna elements 452 and inducessurface currents. The currents propagate to the center feedpoint 456 ofeach antenna element 452. Each antenna element 452 has a dedicated andelectrically isolated capacitive plate 460 that serves as a node forcollection of charge, which is proportional to the electromagneticenergy intensity that is exciting the antenna element 452 to a resonancecondition. An E-field transfers energy from the center feedpoint 456 toa capacitive plate 458. The capacitive plates 458 and 460 share a commondielectric region 462 and a common underlying grid or plate 464. Ineffect this serves as a capacitor array, and accumulates an electriccharge.

The rate of charge of the capacitor array is a function of the RC(resistance-capacitance) time constant of the system. This time constantis determined by the antenna impedance and capacitance of an associatedstorage element. The time constant is the time required for the charge(or discharge) current to fall to 1/e (e being Euler's number or thenatural logarithm base) of its initial value. After approximately fivetime constants the capacitor is 99% charged. The capacitor will chargeand discharge as the THz alternating current fluctuates.

At some period associated with the rate of charge, a control circuitwill transfer the collected charge into an amplifier that converts thecharge into a voltage. The control circuit may be implemented withconventional electronic circuitry as will be appreciated by those ofordinary skill in the art. The charge circuit, in effect, rectifies theTHz current. The power may be further filtered, conditioned and storedfor long-term use. Multiple devices may be interconnected in series toincrease wattage.

Referring to FIG. 10, a perspective view is shown of an energyconversion system 500 according to another embodiment of the presentinvention. The energy conversion system 500 includes antenna elementsdirectly coupled to capacitive storage elements. The antenna elementsmay include an array of apertures or slots 502 configured as antennastructures. The slots 502 may be formed, for example, by systematicremoval of material from a substantially uniform conductive sheet 506.The electric field induced in a slot by an incident electromagnetic waveis equivalent to magnetic current density. A voltage distributionresults that can be used for capacitive storage of energy.

As noted above, the slots 502 may be fabricated into an electricallyconductive layer 506. This electrically conductive layer 506 may alsofunction as an upper capacitive plate. The capacitive storage device iscompleted by placing a dielectric material 508 between the slot layer506 and an electrically conductive material layer 510 (which may alsoserve as a ground plane of the energy conversion system 500, such asdiscussed hereinabove). In one embodiment, the dielectric material 508may exhibit a thickness (i.e., the distance between the slot layer 506and the electrically conductive material layer 510) that is a quarter(¼) wavelength of the wavelength of radiation (shown by arrows) that isanticipated to impinge on the energy conversion system 500. Thisthickness provides an optical resonance gap or stand-off layer toproperly phase the electromagnetic wave for maximum absorption in theantenna plane. Additionally, the dielectric material 508 exhibits adesired permittivity to enable concentration and storage ofelectrostatic lines of flux.

The capacitance is proportional to the surface area of the conductiveplates (506 and 510) and the permittivity of the dielectric material508. Due to the resonance behavior of the slot antennas, a charge willaccumulate on the upper capacitor plate (slot layer 506). A voltagedevelops across the slot layer 506 and the electrically conductivematerial layer 510. When there is a difference in electric chargebetween the plates or layers 506 and 510, an electric field is createdin the region therebetween, the electric field being proportional to theamount of charge that has been moved from one plate to the other.

The presently described embodiment provides the ability to directlyacquire a capacitor voltage by electrical discharge across thecapacitor. The slot layer 506 is configured as a continuous conductor,rather than as the discrete conducting elements, such as have beendescribed with respect to other embodiments hereinabove. The slot layer506 serves as the upper electrode and the electrically conductivematerial layer 510, or ground plane, serves as the lower electrode. Thedielectric material 508 serves as the stand-off layer. A control circuitwill transfer the collected voltage to a storage device (not shown). Thecontrol circuit may be implemented with conventional electroniccircuitry components known to those of ordinary skill in the art. Aswith other embodiments described herein, multiple devices may beinterconnected in series to increase wattage.

Referring to FIGS. 11A and 11B, schematics are shown of an energyconversion system 550 according to another embodiment of the presentinvention. The energy conversion system 550 includes one or more antennaelements 552 with a rectifier diode element 554 embedded into theantenna element 552. At optical frequencies, the skin depth of anelectromagnetic wave in metals is just a few nanometers. This results ina high resistivity causing THz AC (alternating current) currents todissipate in the form of Joule heating if the transmission line is overa few microns in length. To reduce transmission losses the AC current issubstantially immediately rectified. Rectification may be performedusing a metal-semiconductor-metal Schottky junction. THz radiationexcites surface current waves in the antenna elements 552. The receivedAC waves are rectified to DC (direct current) with the rectifier diodeelement 554.

Conventional rectification devices are not suitable for use at thefrequencies at which the antenna elements 552 will resonate. Rather, therectification of electromagnetic waves at the high frequency range ofTHz radiation is performed with using metal-on-metal (MoM)Schottky-diodes. Such MoM devices include a thin barrier layer and anoxide layer sandwiched between two metal electrodes. An MoM device workswhen a large enough field causes the tunneling of electrons across thebarrier layer. A difference in the work function between the metalSchottky junctions results in high speed rectification. Examples of MoMmaterials include Au—Si—Ti and InGaAs/InP.

The increased cutoff frequency (to THz) is achieved by reducing thediode capacitance to the atto-farad range and also by reducing contactresistance. This is achieved by forming a gate region on the order of,for example, 30 nm in a T-gate configuration. Due to the small junctionarea, it is believed that low enough junction capacitance will bemaintained to sustain THz-rate switching times.

Components may be impedance matched to ensure maximum power transferbetween components, to minimize reflection losses, and achieve THzswitch speeds. Proper impedance matching may be achieved by connectingthe feedpoint of the antenna structure through a co-planar strip (CPS)transmission line 556 to the rectifier diode elements 554. The output ofthe rectifier diode elements 554 may be DC coupled together. In oneembodiment, the rectifier diode elements 554 may be interconnected inseries, resulting in a summation of DC voltage. This enables the use ofa common power bus 558.

It is noted that in certain embodiments, such as the one described withrespect to FIGS. 11A and 11B, the collection elements (i.e., the antennaor resonance elements) may have a termination or feedpoint such as hasbeen described herein, and that electrical current is transferred fromthe collection element (e.g., antenna element 552) to the transfer orconversion element (e.g., rectifier diode element 554). The currentproduced by the collection element is AC with a sinusoidal frequency ofbetween 10¹² and 10¹⁴ hertz. The high-efficiency transmission ofelectrons along a wire at THz frequencies is not a conventionalpractice. Thus, as described with respect to FIGS. 11A and 11B, this maybe accomplished through the use of a co-planar strip transmission line(e.g., transmission line 556) that is specifically designed for highspeed and low propagation loss.

Conventional design methods commonly used to design strip transmissionlines at microwave frequencies are not fully valid at IR frequencies.Thus, frequency dependent modeling may be employed to characterizetransmission line behavior such as has been indicated hereinabove withrespect to other components of various embodiments. At THz frequenciesthe propagating electromagnetic field is not totally confined to theconductor. The resulting dispersive nature of the E-fields may result inpotential losses from impacts of the surrounding media, including strayleakage through dielectric materials and substrate boundaries. Design ofthe CPS takes into account, for example, impedance matching to reducestanding wave ratio (SWR) and tailoring permittivity of adjacent mediato reduce refraction in order to improve power transfer from the antennaelements to the conversion elements and improve the efficiency of thedevice.

It is noted that the CPS conductor size and spacing between the balancedtransmission lines also impact characteristic impedance. The opticalproperties of the strip line metal, including index of refraction (n)and extinction coefficient (k) may be analyzed and used to derivefrequency dependent conductivity properties. Tailoring the physicaldesign of the strip line helps to maximize power transfer. The stripline may be designed to match the impedance of the antenna to theimpedance of the conversion element. In another embodiment, to furtherreduce transmission line loss, the conversion element may be physicallylocated substantially co-planar with the antenna.

Referring to FIG. 12, a perspective, partial cross-sectional view isshown of an energy conversion system 600 system according to anotherembodiment of the present invention. The energy conversion system 600may include antenna elements 602 formed on a thin film substrate 604.The thin film substrate 604 may include a flexible material such as, forexample, polyethylene. A ground plane is not utilized in thisembodiment. The antenna elements 602 may be configured to collectelectromagnetic radiation in the visible and infrared bands. As shown inFIG. 12, the antenna elements 602 may include spiral loop antennaelements having a central feedpoint 606. The complementary geometry ofthe antenna elements 602 generate surface currents that are additive andfocus radiant energy at the central feedpoint 606 of the antennaelements 602. A photovoltaic (PV) material 608 may be placed inproximity to the antenna's feedpoint 606 for conversion of the energycollected by the antenna elements 602.

In the currently described embodiment, the thin-film substrate 604 andassociated antenna elements 602 may be overlaid, laminated or bonded tophotovoltaic (PV) material 608, which may include, for example,commercially available PV materials. The antenna elements 602 captureand focus energy (shown by arrows) into each associated feedpoint 606 ofeach antenna element 602 analogous to the focal point of an opticallens. The antenna elements 602 are designed for resonance at the bandgapenergy of the PV material 608. The concentrated, radiant energy iscapacitively coupled (no direct wiring required) to the PV material 608.This induces electron-hole transfer in the PV material 608 and initiatesthe solar energy conversion process. Conventional methods used tocollect and store DC energy from the PV may then be implemented.

The use of antenna elements (e.g., micro-antennas or nano-antennas),with an omni-directional field-of-view, such as provided by the antennaelements described herein, enables modification of the angular receptioncharacteristics of conventional solar cells, leading to highercollection efficiency independent of the angle of incidence of the sun.It is further noted that a-Si, amorphous silicon (a leading material forPV) has an intrinsic light induced degradation. In the presentlydescribed embodiment, the antenna layer serves as a “top coat” orprotective layer for the PV material 608 providing environmentalprotection and reducing the effects of degradation.

Referring to FIG. 13, a schematic is shown of an energy conversionsystem 650 system according to another embodiment of the presentinvention. In this embodiment, an antenna element 652 may have a PVmaterial 654 embedded in, or coupled with, the feedpoint 656 thereof.The THz currents of the antenna element 652 are directly coupled to thePV material 654, achieving a high efficiency electron-hole transfer inthe PV material 654 and corresponding generation of DC current.Different antenna geometries may be designed with peak resonances tomatch specialized multi-band gapped engineered PV materials. Bycombining the efficiency, bandwidth, and omni-directional field-of-viewof the antenna element 652 with exotic energy capturing materials, it ispossible to reduce the amount and cost of PV material 654 required. Thisenables an economical manufacturing of high power density PV devices.

The embodiments described with respect to FIGS. 12 and 13 effectivelyconcentrate infrared and visible energy onto photovoltaic materials togreatly improve operational efficiency, durability, and costeffectiveness of solar generated electricity. The use of micro-antennasand nano-antennas make it possible to use sub-wavelength sized PVmaterials such as bandgap-engineering superlattice materials.

Referring now to FIG. 14, a schematic of an energy conversion system 700is shown in accordance with yet another embodiment of the presentinvention. The energy conversion system 700 includes a plurality ofantenna elements 702 disposed in cavities 704 formed in a substrate 706.Capacitors 708 may also be disposed in the cavities 704 between theantenna elements 702 and the ground plane 710 to function as energytransfer elements. For example, a dielectric material 712 may bedisposed on top of the antenna elements 702 to electrically insulatethem from other components. The sidewalls of the cavities 704 may belined with, for example, carbon nanotubes 714. Carbon nanostructureshave excellent nanoporosity geometries which, it is believed, willenable high efficiency dielectric and energy storage properties. Adielectric material 716 may be disposed in the remaining portion of thecavity 704 to complete the capacitor structure. The capacitors 708 maybe coupled to a common power bus 718.

Embodiments of the present invention, such as have been described above,may include apparatuses or devices that are amenable to installation anduse in a variety of locations and conjunction with a variety ofapplications. For example, since the apparatuses may be formed usingflexible substrates, they may be integrated into structures or deviceshaving complex and contoured surfaces. Such apparatuses may beintegrated into, for example, clothing, backpacks, automobiles (or othertransportation apparatuses), consumer electronics, and a variety ofother types of devices and structures.

Although the present invention has been described with reference toparticular embodiments, the present invention is not limited to thesedescribed embodiments. Rather, the present invention is limited only bythe appended claims, which include within their scope all equivalentdevices or methods that operate according to the principles of thepresent invention as described.

1. An energy harvesting device, comprising: a substrate; at least oneresonance element associated with the substrate, the at least oneresonance element configured to have a resonant frequency betweenapproximately 20 THz and approximately 1,000 THz; a layer of conductivematerial over a surface of the substrate; an optical resonance gapextending a distance between the at least one resonance element and thelayer of conductive material of approximately one-quarter wavelength ofa wavelength of the at least one resonance element's resonant frequency;and at least one energy transfer element associated with the at leastone resonance element.
 2. The energy harvesting device of claim 1,wherein the at least one resonance element comprises a plurality ofresonance elements configured in an array.
 3. The energy harvestingdevice of claim 2, further comprising a plurality of cavities, eachcavity of the plurality being positioned between the layer of conductivematerial and at an associated one of the plurality of resonanceelements.
 4. The energy harvesting device of claim 3, further comprisinga dielectric material disposed in each cavity of the plurality.
 5. Theenergy harvesting device of claim 3, wherein the at least one energytransfer element comprises at least one capacitor structure.
 6. Theenergy harvesting device of claim 5, wherein the at least one capacitorstructure comprises a capacitor structure formed in each of theplurality of cavities.
 7. The energy harvesting apparatus of claim 5,wherein the at least one capacitor structure comprises a carbon nanotubestructure disposed in at least one of the plurality of cavities.
 8. Theenergy harvesting device of claim 2, wherein the plurality of resonanceelements comprises at least one resonance element exhibiting a firstconfiguration and at least a second resonance element exhibiting asecond configuration, the second configuration differing from the firstconfiguration.
 9. The energy harvesting device of claim 8, wherein thefirst configuration comprises a first size, and wherein the secondconfiguration comprises a second size.
 10. The energy harvesting deviceof claim 8, wherein the first configuration comprises a first geometryand the second configuration comprises a second geometry.
 11. The energyharvesting device of claim 1, wherein the at least one resonance elementis formed of a material having a conductivity between approximately1.0×10⁶ Ohms⁻¹-cm⁻¹ and approximately 106.0×10⁶ Ohms ⁻¹-cm⁻¹.
 12. Theenergy harvesting device of claim 11, wherein the layer of conductivematerial exhibits a conductivity between approximately 40.0×10⁶Ohms⁻¹-cm⁻¹ and approximately 106.0×10⁶ Ohms⁻¹-cm⁻¹.
 13. The energyharvesting device of claim 1, wherein the layer of conductive materialexhibits an optical reflectivity of approximately 95% at the resonantfrequency of the at least one resonance element.
 14. The energyharvesting device of claim 1, wherein the substrate comprises at leastone of a polyethylene, a polypropylene, an acrylic, a fluoropolymer, apolystyrene, poly methylmethacrylate (PMMA), polyethylene terephthalate,apolyimide, and a polyolefin.
 15. The energy harvesting device of claim1, wherein the at least one resonance element associated with thesubstrate comprises a protruding element extending approximately 1 gm toapproximately 2 μm from a surface of the substrate.
 16. The energyharvesting device of claim 1, wherein the at least one resonance elementassociated with the substrate comprises a protruding element having awidth of from approximately 100 nm to approximately 400 nm.
 17. Theenergy harvesting device of claim 1, wherein the at least one resonanceelement associated with the substrate comprises a conductive materialselected from the group consisting of manganese, gold, silver, copper,aluminum, platinum, nickel, iron, lead, and tin.
 18. A method ofharvesting energy, the method comprising: providing at least oneresonance element formed of an electrically conductive material andhaving a resonant frequency between approximately 20 THz andapproximately 1,000 THz; exposing the at least one resonance element toelectromagnetic radiation having a frequency substantially the same asthe resonant frequency; absorbing at least a first portion of theelectromagnetic radiation with the at least one resonance element;reflecting at least a second portion of the electromagnetic radiationoff of a defined surface; absorbing at least a portion of the at least asecond portion of the electromagnetic radiation with the at least oneresonance element; and transferring alternating current (AC) inducedenergy from the at least one resonance element via at least one energytransfer element.
 19. The method according to claim 18, furthercomprising configuring an optical resonance gap extending a distancebetween the at least one resonance element and the defined distance aquarter wavelength of a wavelength associated with the resonantfrequency of the at least one resonance element.
 20. The methodaccording to claim 18, further comprising configuring the at least oneresonance element to exhibit a conductivity between approximately1.0×10⁶-Ohms⁻¹−cm⁻¹ and approximately 106.0×10⁶ Ohms⁻¹−cm^(—1).
 21. Themethod according to claim 18, wherein reflecting at least a secondportion of the electromagnetic radiation off of a defined surfacecomprises reflecting the at least a second portion of theelectromagnetic radiation off of a ground plane, and wherein the methodfurther comprises configuring the ground plane to exhibit a conductivitybetween approximately 40.0×10⁶ -Ohms⁻¹−cm⁻¹ and approximately106.0×10⁶-Ohms⁻¹-cm⁻¹ and an optical reflectivity of approximately 95%at the resonant frequency of the at least one resonance element.
 22. Themethod according to claim 18, wherein providing at least one resonanceelement comprises providing a first plurality of resonance elements eachhaving substantially the same resonance frequency and providing a secondplurality of resonance elements each having a resonant frequency at adifferent frequency than the resonant frequency of the first pluralityof resonance elements and between approximately 20 THz and approximately1,000 THz, and further comprising exposing the second plurality ofresonance elements to electromagnetic radiation having a frequencysubstantially the same as the resonant frequency of the second pluralityof resonance elements.
 23. A method of harvesting energy; providing atleast one resonance element formed of an electrically conductivematerial; exposing the at least one resonance element to electromagneticradiation radiated from the earth; inducing resonance in the at leastone resonance element to produce AC (alternating current) energy; andtransferring AC induced energy from the at least one resonance elementvia at least one energy transfer element.